Beyond Feelings
A Guide to Critical Thinking
9 edition-----Vincent Ryan Ruggiero
為什么這是一本好書？
因?yàn)檫@是一本李笑來推薦的書
因?yàn)檫@是一本經(jīng)典書，該書最初出版于1975年，2011年出版了其第九版，作者文森特·魯吉羅是美國紐約州立大學(xué)德里校區(qū)榮譽(yù)退休教授，是國際公認(rèn)的強(qiáng)調(diào)思維教學(xué)在教育中核心地位的運(yùn)動(dòng)先驅(qū)。
人們對事物的認(rèn)知往往停留在感性的階段，但是這種認(rèn)知經(jīng)常是不正確的。如何用理性的思維對事物獲得相對準(zhǔn)確的認(rèn)知，或者說如何來探究真理，簡而言之，如何正確的思考，本書告訴你怎么做。
本書的基本框架
The book has three main sections. The first, “The Context,” will help you understand such important concepts as individuality,critical thinking, truth, knowledge, opinion, evidence, and argument and overcome attitudes and ideas that obstruct critical thinking. The second section,“The Pitfalls,” will teach you to recognize and avoid the most common errors in thinking. The third section, “A Strategy,” will help you acquire the various skills used in addressing problems and issues. This section includes tips on identifying and overcoming your personal intellectual weaknesses as well as techniques for becoming more observant, clarifying issues,conducting inquiries, evaluating evidence, analyzing other people’s views, and making sound judgments.
這本書共分三部分，一是基本概念，先幫你理清概念和定義，例如個(gè)人意識(shí)、思考、真理、知道、觀點(diǎn)，這些詞的定義是什么，這些詞對批判性思考有什么影響，如何克服他們。
二是誤區(qū)，告訴你思考中的一些誤區(qū)，以及如何認(rèn)識(shí)、克服他們。
三是應(yīng)用技巧，幫助你建立探究問題的幾個(gè)技巧。
個(gè)人認(rèn)為，第一部分和第三部分是重點(diǎn)，先在第一部分中了解幾個(gè)熟知的概念的真正定義，其實(shí)我們大多數(shù)人犯了定義模糊的錯(cuò)誤，真正的思考，第一步應(yīng)該是搞清楚定義。第三部分是要學(xué)習(xí)怎么做，什么是批判性思考的正確方式。第二部分可以有選擇的讀一讀，部分內(nèi)容是第一部分和第三部分的重復(fù)。
第一部分：七大基本概念
Chapter 1 Who Are You?
The Influence of Time and Place
The Influence of Ideas
The Influence of Mass Culture
The “Science” of Manipulation
The Influence of Psychology
Becoming an Individual
Chapter 2 What Is Critical Thinking?
Mind, Brain, or Both?
Critical Thinking Defined
Characteristics of Critical Thinkers
The Role of Intuition
Basic Activities in Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking and Writing
Critical Thinking and Discussion
Avoiding Plagiarism
Chapter 3 What Is Truth?
Where Does It All Begin?
Imperfect Perception
Imperfect Memory
Deficient Information
Even the Wisest Can Err
Truth Is Discovered, Not Created
Understanding Cause and Effect
Chapter 4 What Does It Mean to Know?
Requirements of Knowing
Testing Your Own Knowledge
How We Come to Know
Why Knowing Is Difficult
A Cautionary Tale
Is Faith a Form of Knowledge?
Obstacles to Knowledge
Chapter 5 How Good Are Your Opinions?
Opinions Can Be Mistaken
Opinions on Moral Issues
Even Experts Can Be Wrong
Kinds of Errors
Informed Versus Uninformed Opinion
Forming Opinions Responsibly
Chapter 6 What Is Evidence?
Kinds of Evidence
Evaluating Evidence
What Constitutes Sufficient Evidence?
Chapter 7 What Is Argument?
The Parts of an Argument
Evaluating Arguments
More Difficult Arguments
第三部分：六項(xiàng)行動(dòng)指南
PART THREE A Strategy
Chapter 14 Knowing Yourself
Critical Thinking Inventory
Using Your Inventory
Challenge and Reward
Chapter 15 Being Observant
Observing People
Observation in Science and Medicine
The Range of Application
Becoming More Observant
Reflecting on Your Observations
Chapter 16 Selecting an Issue
The Basic Rule: Less Is More
How to Limit an Issue
Sample Issue: Pornography
Sample Issue: Boxing
Sample Issue: Juvenile Crime
Narrowing the Issue Further
Chapter 17 Conducting Inquiry
Working with Inconclusive Results
Where to Look for Information
Keeping Focused
How Much Inquiry Is Enough?
Managing Lengthy Material
Chapter 18 Forming a Judgment
Evaluating Evidence
Evaluating Your Sources’ Arguments
Making Important Distinctions
Expressing Judgments
Chapter 19 Persuading Others
Guidelines for Persuasion
An Unpersuasive Presentation
A Persuasive Presentation
七大基本概念
一、你是誰
每個(gè)人看起來都各自不同，但其實(shí)卻受到不同因素的影響，這些影響包括5個(gè)方面。The Influence of Time and Place ，The Influence of Ideas ，The Influence of Mass Culture，The “Science” of Manipulation ，The Influence of Psychology。
首先是不同年代不同地域的人的觀念會(huì)對你產(chǎn)生影響。例如，關(guān)于遲到，不同國家的人對此定義其實(shí)是不同的：
“Five minutes is late but permissible for a business appointment in the U.S., but thirty minutes is normal in Arab countries. In England five to fifteen minutes is the ‘correct’ lateness for one invited to dinner; an Italian might come two hours late, an Ethiopian still later, a Javanese not at all, having accepted only to prevent his host’s losing face.”
“ 5分鐘已經(jīng)算是遲到，但在美國商務(wù)會(huì)面時(shí)是可容忍的，但是，在阿拉伯國家，遲到30分鐘是正常的。在英國，一個(gè)人受邀請共進(jìn)晚餐，5到1 5分鐘屬于‘恰當(dāng)’的遲到時(shí)間；一個(gè)意大利人也許會(huì)遲到兩個(gè)小時(shí)；埃塞俄比亞人會(huì)更遲；爪哇人甚至根本不來，接受邀請目的僅僅是不讓主人沒面子?！?/p>
其次，你周圍人群的價(jià)值觀會(huì)影響到你。
To appreciate the influence of ideas in people’s lives,consider the series of events set in motion by an idea that was popular in psychology more than acentury ago and whose influence continues to this day—the idea that“intelligence is genetically determined and cannot be increased.”
要理解觀念在人們生活中的影響，考慮一個(gè)一個(gè)多世紀(jì)前在心理學(xué)中流行并且其影響持續(xù)至今的觀念所引發(fā)的一場運(yùn)動(dòng)中的系列事件--“智力是基因決定的，后天不能增加。”
第三，大眾傳媒對你的影響。你的注意力被大眾傳媒誘導(dǎo)，你的思維被他們牽著鼻子走，你變得毫無思考力。
Television programmers use frequent scene shifts and sensory appeals such as car crashes,violence, and sexual encounters to keep audience interest from diminishing. Then they add frequent commercial interruptions. This author has analyzed the attention shifts that television viewers are subjected to. In a dramatic program, for example, attention shifts might include camera angle changes;shifts in story line from one set of characters (or subplot) to another, or from a present scene to a past scene (flashback), or to fantasy;and shifts to “newsbreaks,” to commercial breaks, from one commercial to another, and back to the program. Also included might be shifts of attention that occur within commercials. I found as many as 78 shifts per hour, excluding the shifts within commercials. The number of shifts within commercials ranged from 6 to 54 and averaged approximately 17 per fifteen-second commercial. The total number of attention shifts came out to over 800 per hour, or over 14 perminute.
電視節(jié)目制作人經(jīng)常運(yùn)用頻繁的場景轉(zhuǎn)換和感官訴求（如汽車碰撞、暴力和性邂逅），以維持觀眾的興趣不減，然后頻繁地插播商業(yè)廣告。制片人分析過電視觀眾所承受的注意力轉(zhuǎn)移程度。例如，在電視劇中，注意力轉(zhuǎn)移或許包括鏡頭角度的改變；故事線索從一個(gè)情節(jié)（或陪襯情節(jié)）向另一個(gè)情節(jié)的轉(zhuǎn)變，或者從當(dāng)前場景切換到過去場景（閃回），或切換到幻景，切換到“插播新聞”或商業(yè)廣告，從一個(gè)商業(yè)廣告跳到另一個(gè)商業(yè)廣告，然后回到電視節(jié)目。而且，注意力的轉(zhuǎn)移也有可能發(fā)生在商業(yè)廣告之內(nèi)。我發(fā)現(xiàn)每小時(shí)的廣告切換多達(dá)78次，這還不包括商業(yè)廣告之內(nèi)的切換。每15秒鐘的商業(yè)廣告內(nèi)的切換次數(shù)從6次到54次不等，平均大約為17次。意力轉(zhuǎn)移的總次數(shù)超過了每小時(shí)800次，或每分鐘超過14次。
第四，你的思維容易被人操控。別有用心的人可以通過研究人們的心理來改變?nèi)说恼J(rèn)知，從而輕易獲取人們的信任
research has shown that human memory can be manipulated. The way a question is asked can change the details in a person’s memory and even make a person remember something that never happened!
研究已經(jīng)表明人類記憶可以被操縱。提問的方式可以改變一個(gè)人的記憶中的細(xì)節(jié)，甚至讓一個(gè)人回憶起從來沒有發(fā)生過的事情！
Of course,advertisers and people with political or social agendas are not content to stimulate emotions and/or plant ideas in our minds. They also seek to reinforce hose impressions by repeating them again and again. The more people hear aslogan or talking point, the more familiar it becomes. Before long, it becomes indistinguishable from ideas developed through careful thought
當(dāng)然，廣告商和社會(huì)與政治工作者不會(huì)滿足在我們腦袋里激發(fā)情感和/或植入觀念。他們還試圖不斷重復(fù)來加深這些印象。人越是多次聽到的一個(gè)口號或“論據(jù)”，對它就會(huì)越熟悉。不久以后，它與通過深思熟慮的想法無法區(qū)分。悲哀的是，“這種包裝通常做得如此有效，以至于觀眾、聽眾或讀者根本作出自己的決定。
第五，心理上的影響。我們?yōu)槿颂幨赖膽B(tài)度、價(jià)值觀會(huì)受到社會(huì)大眾心理的影響。
The social and psychological theories of our time also have an impact on our beliefs. Before the past few decades, people were urged to be self-disciplined, self-critical, and self-effacing. They were urged to practice self-denial, to aspire to self-knowledge, to behave in a manner that ensured they maintained self-respect. Self-centeredness was considered a vice. “Hard work,” they were told, “l(fā)eads to achievement, and that in turn produces satisfaction and self-confidence.”
我們這個(gè)時(shí)代的社會(huì)學(xué)和心理學(xué)的理論對我們的信念也產(chǎn)生了影響。在幾十年前，人們被督促要求自律、自我批評和自謙，要進(jìn)行自我否定，要有自知之明，要以一種確保能維護(hù)其自尊的方式來行事。以自我為中心的行為被視為惡習(xí)。他們被告知：“努力工作可帶來成就，同時(shí)又可帶來自我滿足感和自信?！?/p>
總結(jié)：成為你自己，保持警覺的幾個(gè)準(zhǔn)則。
In light of what we have discussed, we should regard individuality not as something we are born with but rather as something acquired—or, more precisely, earned. Individuality begins in the realization that it is impossible to escape being influenced by other people and by circumstance. The essence of individuality is vigilance.
鑒于我們前面已經(jīng)討論的內(nèi)容，我們應(yīng)該注意到個(gè)性并不是我們與生俱來的，而是后天的，或者更準(zhǔn)確地說，是掙得的東西。個(gè)性開始于意識(shí)到無法逃脫他人和環(huán)境的影響。個(gè)性的本質(zhì)是警覺。
1. Treat your first reaction to any person, issue, or situation as tentative. No matter how appealing it may be,refuse to embrace it until you have examined it.
1.將對任何人，問題或情況的第一反應(yīng)視為的暫定的。不管它多么吸引人，拒絕接受它，直到你已經(jīng)檢驗(yàn)它。
2.Decide why you reacted as you did. Consider whether you borrowed the reaction from someone else—a parent or friend, perhaps, or a celebrity or fictional character on television. If possible, determine what specific experiences conditioned you to react this way.
2.判斷你為什么會(huì)這樣做。考慮你是否模仿別人的反應(yīng)--父母、朋友、名人或者電視中虛構(gòu)人物。如果可能，確定什么特定經(jīng)歷導(dǎo)致你這樣反應(yīng)。
3. Think of other possible reactions you might have had to the person, issue, or situation.
3.想想你可能對人，問題或情況可能有其他可能的反應(yīng)。
4.Ask yourself whether one of the other reactions is more appropriate than your first reaction. And when you answer, resist the influence of your conditioning.
4.問自己其他反應(yīng)是否比你的第一反應(yīng)更合適。當(dāng)你回答時(shí)，排除你所在環(huán)境影響。
