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Our last episode brought us to the start of the 20th century,

上集講到 20 世紀(jì)初?

where early, special purpose computing devices, like tabulating machines,

當(dāng)時(shí)的早期計(jì)算設(shè)備都針對(duì)特定用途? 比如 制表機(jī)

were a huge boon to governments and business

大大推進(jìn)了政府和企業(yè)

- aiding, and sometimes replacing, rote manual tasks.

它們幫助, 甚至代替了人工

But the scale of human systems continued to increase at an unprecedented rate.

然而人類社會(huì)的規(guī)模? 在以前所未有的速度增長(zhǎng)?

The first half of the 20th century saw the world's population almost double.

20世紀(jì)上半葉，世界人口幾乎翻倍

World War 1 mobilized 70 million people, and World War 2 involved more than 100 million.

一戰(zhàn)動(dòng)員7千萬(wàn)人，二戰(zhàn)1億多人

Global trade and transit networks became interconnected like never before,

全球貿(mào)易和運(yùn)輸更加緊密

and the sophistication of our engineering and scientific endeavors reached new heights

工程和科學(xué)的復(fù)雜度也達(dá)到新高

- we even started to seriously consider visiting other planets.

- 我們甚至開(kāi)始考慮造訪其他行星

And it was this explosion of complexity, bureaucracy, and ultimately data,

復(fù)雜度的增高導(dǎo)致數(shù)據(jù)量暴增

that drove an increasing need for automation and computation.

人們需要更多自動(dòng)化 更強(qiáng)的計(jì)算能力

Soon those cabinet-sized electro-mechanical computers grew into room-sized behemoths

很快，柜子大小的計(jì)算機(jī)變成房間大小

that were expensive to maintain and prone to errors.

維護(hù)費(fèi)用高 而且容易出錯(cuò)

And it was these machines that would set the stage for future innovation.

而正是這些機(jī)器 為未來(lái)的創(chuàng)新打下基礎(chǔ)

One of the largest electro-mechanical computers built was the Harvard Mark I,

最大的機(jī)電計(jì)算機(jī)之一是 哈佛馬克一號(hào)

completed in 1944 by IBM for the Allies during World War 2.

IBM 在 1944 完成建造，給二戰(zhàn)同盟國(guó)建造的.

It contained 765,000 components, three million connections, and five hundred miles of wire.

它有76萬(wàn)5千個(gè)組件，300萬(wàn)個(gè)連接點(diǎn)和500英里長(zhǎng)的導(dǎo)線

To keep its internal mechanics synchronized,

為了保持內(nèi)部機(jī)械裝置同步

it used a 50-foot shaft running right through the machine driven by a five horsepower motor.

它有一個(gè)50英尺的傳動(dòng)軸，由一個(gè) 5 馬力的電機(jī)驅(qū)動(dòng)

One of the earliest uses for this technology was running simulations for the Manhattan Project.

這臺(tái)機(jī)器最早的用途之一 是給"曼哈頓計(jì)劃"跑模擬

The brains of these huge electro-mechanical beasts were relays:

這臺(tái)機(jī)器的大腦是"繼電器"

electrically-controlled mechanical switches.

繼電器是：用電控制的機(jī)械開(kāi)關(guān)

In a relay, there is a control wire that determines whether a circuit is opened or closed.

繼電器里，有根"控制線路"，控制電路是開(kāi)還是關(guān)

The control wire connects to a coil of wire inside the relay.

"控制線路" 連著一個(gè)線圈

When current flows through the coil, an electromagnetic field is created,

當(dāng)電流流過(guò)線圈，線圈產(chǎn)生電磁場(chǎng)

which in turn, attracts a metal arm inside the relay, snapping it shut and completing the circuit.

吸引金屬臂，從而閉合電路

You can think of a relay like a water faucet.

你可以把繼電器 想成水龍頭

The control wire is like the faucet handle.

把控制線路 想成水龍頭把

Open the faucet, and water flows through the pipe.

打開(kāi)水龍頭，水會(huì)流出來(lái)

Close the faucet, and the flow of water stops.

關(guān)閉水龍頭，水就沒(méi)有了

Relays are doing the same thing, just with electrons instead of water.

繼電器是一樣的，只不過(guò)控制的是電子? 而不是水

The controlled circuit can then connect to other circuits, or to something like a motor,

這個(gè)控制電路可以連到其他電路，比如馬達(dá)

which might increment a count on a gear,

馬達(dá)讓計(jì)數(shù)齒輪 +1

like in Hollerith's tabulating machine we talked about last episode.

就像上集中 Hollerith 的制表機(jī)一樣

Unfortunately, the mechanical arm inside of a relay *has mass*,

不幸的是，繼電器內(nèi)的機(jī)械臂 *有質(zhì)量*

and therefore can't move instantly between opened and closed states.

因此無(wú)法快速開(kāi)關(guān)

A good relay in the 1940's might be able to flick back and forth fifty times in a second.

1940 年代一個(gè)好的繼電器 1 秒能翻轉(zhuǎn) 50 次

That might seem pretty fast, but it's not fast enough to be useful at solving large, complex problems.

看起來(lái)好像很快，但還不夠快，不足以解決復(fù)雜的大問(wèn)題

The Harvard Mark I could do 3 additions or subtractions per second;

哈佛馬克一號(hào)，1 秒能做 3 次加法或減法運(yùn)算

multiplications took 6 seconds, and divisions took 15.

一次乘法要花 6 秒，除法要花 15 秒

And more complex operations, like a trigonometric function, could take over a minute.

更復(fù)雜的操作 比如三角函數(shù)，可能要一分鐘以上

In addition to slow switching speed, another limitation was wear and tear.

除了速度慢，另一個(gè)限制是齒輪磨損

Anything mechanical that moves will wear over time.

任何會(huì)動(dòng)的機(jī)械都會(huì)隨時(shí)間磨損

Some things break entirely, and other things start getting sticky, slow, and just plain unreliable.

有些部件會(huì)完全損壞，有些則是變黏，變慢，變得不可靠

And as the number of relays increases, the probability of a failure increases too.

并且隨著繼電器數(shù)量增加，故障概率也會(huì)增加

The Harvard Mark I had roughly 3500 relays.

哈佛馬克一號(hào) 有大約 3500 個(gè)繼電器

Even if you assume a relay has an operational life of 10 years,

哪怕假設(shè)繼電器的使用壽命是 10 年

this would mean you'd have to replace, on average, one faulty relay every day!

也意味著平均每天得換一個(gè)故障繼電器！

That's a big problem when you are in the middle of running some important, multi-day calculation.

這個(gè)問(wèn)題很嚴(yán)重，因?yàn)橛行┲匾\(yùn)算要運(yùn)行好幾天

And that's not all engineers had to contend with.

而且還有更多其他問(wèn)題要考慮

These huge, dark, and warm machines also attracted insects.

這些巨大，黑色，溫暖的機(jī)器也會(huì)吸引昆蟲(chóng)

In September 1947, operators on the Harvard Mark II pulled a dead moth from a malfunctioning relay.

1947年9月，哈佛馬克2型的操作員從故障繼電器中，拔出一只死蟲(chóng)

Grace Hopper who we'll talk more about in a later episode noted,

Grace Hopper（這位我們以后還會(huì)提到）曾說(shuō)

"From then on, when anything went wrong with a computer,

"從那時(shí)起，每當(dāng)電腦出了問(wèn)題，

we said it had bugs in it."

我們就說(shuō)它出了 bug（蟲(chóng)子）"

And that's where we get the term computer bug.

這就是術(shù)語(yǔ) "bug" 的來(lái)源

It was clear that a faster, more reliable alternative to electro-mechanical relays was needed

顯然，如果想進(jìn)一步提高計(jì)算能力

if computing was going to advance further,

我們需要更快更可靠的東西，來(lái)替代繼電器

and fortunately that alternative already existed!

幸運(yùn)的是，替代品已經(jīng)存在了！

In 1904, English physicist John Ambrose Fleming

在 1904 年，英國(guó)物理學(xué)家 "約翰·安布羅斯·弗萊明"

developed a new electrical component called a thermionic valve,

開(kāi)發(fā)了一種新的電子組件，叫"熱電子管"

which housed two electrodes inside an airtight glass bulb

把兩個(gè)電極裝在一個(gè)氣密的玻璃燈泡里

- this was the first vacuum tube.

-這是世上第一個(gè)真空管

One of the electrodes could be heated, which would cause it to emit electrons

其中一個(gè)電極可以加熱，從而發(fā)射電子

– a process called thermionic emission.

-這叫 "熱電子發(fā)射"

The other electrode could then attract these electrons to create the flow of our electric faucet,

另一個(gè)電極會(huì)吸引電子，形成"電龍頭"的電流

but only if it was positively charged

但只有帶正電才行

- if it had a negative or neutral charge, the electrons would no longer be attracted across the vacuum

- 如果帶負(fù)電荷或中性電荷，電子就沒(méi)辦法被吸引，越過(guò)真空區(qū)域

so no current would flow.

因此沒(méi)有電流

An electronic component that permits the one-way flow of current is called a diode,

電流只能單向流動(dòng)的電子部件叫 "二極管"

but what was really needed was a switch to help turn this flow on and off.

但我們需要的是，一個(gè)能開(kāi)關(guān)電流的東西

Luckily, shortly after, in 1906, American inventor Lee de Forest

幸運(yùn)的是，不久之后在 1906 年，美國(guó)發(fā)明家 "李·德富雷斯特"

added a third "control" electrode that sits between the two electrodes in Fleming's design.

他在"弗萊明"設(shè)計(jì)的兩個(gè)電極之間，加入了第三個(gè) "控制" 電極

By applying a positive charge to the control electrode, it would permit the flow of electrons as before.

向"控制"電極施加正電荷，它會(huì)允許電子流動(dòng)

But if the control electrode was given a negative charge,

但如果施加負(fù)電荷

it would prevent the flow of electrons.

它會(huì)阻止電子流動(dòng)

So by manipulating the control wire, one could open or close the circuit.

因此通過(guò)控制線路，可以斷開(kāi)或閉合電路

It's pretty much the same thing as a relay

和繼電器的功能一樣

- but importantly, vacuum tubes have no moving parts.

- 但重要的是，真空管內(nèi)沒(méi)有會(huì)動(dòng)的組件

This meant there was less wear,

這意味著更少的磨損

and more importantly, they could switch thousands of times per second.

更重要的是，每秒可以開(kāi)閉數(shù)千次

These triode vacuum tubes would become the basis of radio, long distance telephone,

因此這些"三極真空管"成為了無(wú)線電，長(zhǎng)途電話

and many other electronic devices for nearly a half century.

以及其他電子設(shè)備的基礎(chǔ)，持續(xù)了接近半個(gè)世紀(jì)

I should note here that vacuum tubes weren't perfect

我應(yīng)該提到，真空管不是完美的

- they're kind of fragile, and can burn out like light bulbs,

-它們有點(diǎn)脆弱，并且像燈泡一樣會(huì)燒壞

they were a big improvement over mechanical relays.

但比起機(jī)械繼電器是一次巨大進(jìn)步

Also, initially vacuum tubes were expensive

起初，真空管非常昂貴

– a radio set often used just one,

收音機(jī)一般只用一個(gè)

but a computer might require hundreds or thousands of electrical switches.

但計(jì)算機(jī)可能要上百甚至上千個(gè)電氣開(kāi)關(guān)

But by the 1940s,

但到了 1940 年代

their cost and reliability had improved to the point where they became feasible for use in computers….

它的成本和可靠性得到改進(jìn)，可以用在計(jì)算機(jī)里

at least by people with deep pockets, like governments.

至少有錢(qián)人負(fù)擔(dān)得起，比如政府

This marked the shift from electro-mechanical computing to electronic computing.

這標(biāo)志著計(jì)算機(jī) 從機(jī)電轉(zhuǎn)向電子

Let's go to the Thought Bubble.

我們來(lái)進(jìn)入思想泡泡

The first large-scale use of vacuum tubes for computing was the Colossus MK 1,

第一個(gè)大規(guī)模使用真空管的計(jì)算機(jī)是 "巨人1號(hào)"

designed by engineer Tommy Flowers and completed in December of 1943.

由工程師 Tommy Flowers 設(shè)計(jì)，完工于1943年12月

The Colossus was installed at Bletchley Park, in the UK,

巨人1號(hào) 在英國(guó)的"布萊切利園", 用于破解納粹通信

and helped to decrypt Nazi communications.

巨人1號(hào) 在英國(guó)的"布萊切利園", 用于破解納粹通信

This may sound familiar because two years prior Alan Turing,

聽(tīng)起來(lái)可能有點(diǎn)熟，因?yàn)?2 年前 阿蘭·圖靈

often called the father of computer science,

他經(jīng)常被稱為"計(jì)算機(jī)科學(xué)之父"

had created an electromechanical device, also at Bletchley Park, called the Bombe.

圖靈也在"布萊切利園"做了臺(tái)機(jī)電裝置，叫 "Bombe"

It was an electromechanical machine designed to break Nazi Enigma codes,

這臺(tái)機(jī)器的設(shè)計(jì)目的是? 破解納粹"英格碼"通訊加密設(shè)備

but the Bombe wasn't technically a computer,

但 Bombe 嚴(yán)格來(lái)說(shuō)不算計(jì)算機(jī)

and we'll get to Alan Turing's contributions later.

我們之后會(huì)討論"阿蘭·圖靈"的貢獻(xiàn)

Anyway, the first version of Colossus contained 1,600 vacuum tubes,

總之，巨人1號(hào)有 1600 個(gè)真空管

and in total, ten Colossi were built to help with code-breaking.

總共造了 10 臺(tái)巨人計(jì)算機(jī)，來(lái)幫助破解密碼

Colossus is regarded as the first programmable, electronic computer.

巨人 被認(rèn)為是第一個(gè)可編程的電子計(jì)算機(jī)

Programming was done by plugging hundreds of wires into plugboards,

編程的方法是把幾百根電線插入插板

sort of like old school telephone switchboards,

有點(diǎn)像老電話交換機(jī)

in order to set up the computer to perform the right operations.

這是為了讓計(jì)算機(jī)執(zhí)行正確操作

So while "programmable", it still had to be configured to perform a specific computation.

雖然"可編程" ，但還是要配置它

Enter the The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator - or ENIAC -

電子數(shù)值積分計(jì)算機(jī) "ENIAC"

completed a few years later in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania.

幾年后在 1946 年，在"賓夕法尼亞大學(xué)"完成建造

Designed by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert,

設(shè)計(jì)者是 John Mauchly 和 J. Presper Eckert

this was the world's first truly general purpose, programmable, electronic computer.

這是世上第一個(gè)真正的通用，可編程，電子計(jì)算機(jī)

ENIAC could perform 5000 ten-digit additions or subtractions per second,

ENIAC 每秒可執(zhí)行 5000 次十位數(shù)加減法

many, many times faster than any machine that came before it.

比前輩快了很多倍

It was operational for ten years,

它運(yùn)作了十年

and is estimated to have done more arithmetic than the entire human race up to that point.

據(jù)估計(jì)，它完成的運(yùn)算，比全人類加起來(lái)還多

But with that many vacuum tubes failures were common,

因?yàn)檎婵展芎芏?，所以故障很常?jiàn)

and ENIAC was generally only operational for about half a day at a time before breaking down.

ENIAC 運(yùn)行半天左右就會(huì)出一次故障

Thanks Thought Bubble.

謝了 思想泡泡

By the 1950's, even vacuum-tube-based computing was reaching its limits.

到 1950 年代，真空管計(jì)算機(jī)都達(dá)到了極限

The US Air Force's AN/FSQ-7 computer, which was completed in 1955,

美國(guó)空軍的 AN/FSQ-7 計(jì)算機(jī)于 1955 年完成

was part of the "SAGE" air defense computer system,

是 "SAGE" 防空計(jì)算機(jī)系統(tǒng)的一部分

which we'll talk more about in a later episode.

之后的視頻還會(huì)提到.

To reduce cost and size, as well as improve reliability and speed,

為了降低成本和大小，同時(shí)提高可靠性和速度

a radical new electronic switch would be needed.

我們需要一種新的電子開(kāi)關(guān)

In 1947, Bell Laboratory scientists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley

1947 年，貝爾實(shí)驗(yàn)室科學(xué)家 \N John Bardeen，Walter Brattain，William Shockley

invented the transistor,

發(fā)明了晶體管

and with it, a whole new era of computing was born!

一個(gè)全新的計(jì)算機(jī)時(shí)代誕生了！

The physics behind transistors is pretty complex, relying on quantum mechanics,

晶體管的物理學(xué)相當(dāng)復(fù)雜，牽扯到量子力學(xué)

so we're going to stick to the basics.

所以我們只講基礎(chǔ)

A transistor is just like a relay or vacuum tube

晶體管 就像之前提過(guò)的"繼電器"或"真空管"

- it's a switch that can be opened or closed by applying electrical power via a control wire.

-它是一個(gè)開(kāi)關(guān)，可以用控制線路來(lái)控制開(kāi)或關(guān)

Typically, transistors have two electrodes separated by a material that sometimes can conduct electricity,

晶體管有兩個(gè)電極，\N 電極之間有一種材料隔開(kāi)它們，這種材料有時(shí)候?qū)щ?/p>

and other times resist it

有時(shí)候不導(dǎo)電

- a semiconductor.

- 這叫"半導(dǎo)體"

In this case, the control wire attaches to a "gate" electrode.

控制線連到一個(gè) "門(mén)" 電極

By changing the electrical charge of the gate,

通過(guò)改變 "門(mén)" 的電荷

the conductivity of the semiconducting material can be manipulated,

我們可以控制半導(dǎo)體材料的導(dǎo)電性

allowing current to flow or be stopped

來(lái)允許或不允許 電流流動(dòng)

- like the water faucet analogy we discussed earlier.

- 就像之前的水龍頭比喻

Even the very first transistor at Bell Labs showed tremendous promise

貝爾實(shí)驗(yàn)室的第一個(gè)晶體管就展示了巨大的潛力

- it could switch between on and off states 10,000 times per second.

每秒可以開(kāi)關(guān) 10,000 次

Further, unlike vacuum tubes made of glass and with carefully suspended, fragile components,

而且，比起玻璃制成，小心易碎的真空管

transistors were solid material known as a solid state component.

晶體管是固態(tài)的

Almost immediately, transistors could be made smaller than the smallest possible relays or vacuum tubes.

晶體管可以遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)小于繼電器或真空管

This led to dramatically smaller and cheaper computers, like the IBM 608, released in 1957

導(dǎo)致更小更便宜的計(jì)算機(jī)，比如1957年發(fā)布的IBM 608

– the first fully transistor-powered, commercially-available computer.

- 第一個(gè)完全用晶體管，而且消費(fèi)者也可以買到的計(jì)算機(jī)

It contained 3000 transistors and could perform 4,500 additions,

它有 3000 個(gè)晶體管，每秒執(zhí)行 4500 次加法

or roughly 80 multiplications or divisions, every second.

每秒能執(zhí)行 80 次左右的乘除法

IBM soon transitioned all of its computing products to transistors,

IBM 很快把所有產(chǎn)品都轉(zhuǎn)向了晶體管

bringing transistor-based computers into offices, and eventually, homes.

把晶體管計(jì)算機(jī)帶入辦公室，最終引入家庭

Today, computers use transistors that are smaller than 50 nanometers in size

如今，計(jì)算機(jī)里的晶體管小于 50 納米

- for reference, a sheet of paper is roughly 100,000 nanometers thick.

- 而一張紙的厚度大概是 10 萬(wàn)納米

And they're not only incredibly small, they're super fast

晶體管不僅小，還超級(jí)快

- they can switch states millions of times per second, and can run for decades.

- 每秒可以切換上百萬(wàn)次，并且能工作幾十年

A lot of this transistor and semiconductor development happened

很多晶體管和半導(dǎo)體的開(kāi)發(fā)在"圣克拉拉谷"

in the Santa Clara Valley, between San Francisco and San Jose, California.

這個(gè)地方在加州，位于"舊金山"和"圣荷西"之間

As the most common material used to create semiconductors is silicon,

而生產(chǎn)半導(dǎo)體最常見(jiàn)的材料是 "硅"

this region soon became known as Silicon Valley.

所以這個(gè)地區(qū)被稱為 "硅谷"

Even William Shockley moved there, founding Shockley Semiconductor,

甚至 William Shockley 都搬了過(guò)去，創(chuàng)立了"肖克利半導(dǎo)體"

whose employees later founded Fairchild Semiconductors,

里面的員工后來(lái)成立了"仙童半導(dǎo)體"

whose employees later founded Intel - the world's largest computer chip maker today.

這里面的員工后來(lái)創(chuàng)立了英特爾 - 當(dāng)今世界上最大的計(jì)算機(jī)芯片制造商

Ok, so we've gone from relays to vacuum tubes to transistors.

好了，我們從"繼電器"到"真空管"到"晶體管"

We can turn electricity on and off really, really, really fast.

我們可以讓電路開(kāi)閉得非常非?？?/p>

But how do we get from transistors to actually computing something,

但我們是如何用晶體管做計(jì)算的？

especially if we don't have motors and gears?

我們沒(méi)有馬達(dá)和齒輪啊？

That's what we're going to cover over the next few episodes.

我們接下來(lái)幾集會(huì)講

Thanks for watching. See you next week.

感謝觀看 下周見(jiàn)