18 Clarifying Issues分析 澄清問題
這一部分講解如何分析問題，我們通常拿到一個問題之后會根據(jù)自己的直覺進行分析，然而這樣做很容易犯錯。這里告訴我們?nèi)绾握_的方式去分析問題。首先在大的問題之下分各個小問題，把大問題從不同的角度拆分。其次在眾多小問題中找到符合自己需求的能達到自己目的的小問題。最后精確地分析你關注的這些問題時刻提醒自己關注這個主題不偏離。
Many people make the scope of their analysis larger than they can manage. Uncertain as to whether they can find enough about one aspect of a topic, they address the whole topic. Unfortunately, by grouping all aspects together rather than separating them, such people tend to ignore important distinctions, miss subtleties, and distort the relationships among ideas. Any inquiry and judgment that follow such a beginning are likely to be shallow and oversimplified.
許多人使他們的分析范圍比他們能夠管理的大。對于他們是否能夠充分了解某個主題的某個方面并不確定，他們會針對整個主題。不幸的是，通過將所有方面集中在一起而不是將它們分開，這些人往往忽視重要的區(qū)別，錯過微妙之處，并扭曲思想之間的關系。在這樣的開始之后，任何調(diào)查和判斷都可能會變得簡單和過于簡單化。
Skilled analysis, on the other hand, understands that if they conduct their inquiry carefully, they will usually find more than enough to say about even a small aspect of an issue. They know that a quality analysis, particularly of a controversial matter, usually demands that their focus be severely limited. They realize that unless they are writing a long book, they must sacrifice breadth of treatment to achieve depth. In other words, they have learned the wisdom of the saying,"Less is more."
另一方面，熟練的分析理解，如果他們仔細地進行調(diào)查，他們通常會發(fā)現(xiàn)綽綽有余甚至足以說明問題的一小部分。他們知道，質(zhì)量分析，特別是有爭議的事情，通常要求他們的重點受到嚴重限制。他們意識到，除非他們寫一本長長的書，否則他們必須犧牲寬廣的治對待以達到深度。換句話說，他們已經(jīng)學會了“少就是多”這句話的智慧。
HOW TO CLARIFY AND ISSUE
如何澄清問題
To get the most out of our thinking we must, like the skilled analysts, limit our topics appropriately. That is, we must determine at the outset what aspect or aspects of the broad general issue we are concerned with. We should select the particular aspect we wish to focus on, and in doing so settle not for a rough, vague notion but only a precise one. The following steps provide a quick yet effective way to select and clarify an issue.
為了充分利用我們的思維，我們必須像熟練的分析師一樣適當?shù)叵拗莆覀兊闹黝}。也就是說，我們必須首先確定我們所關心的廣泛問題的哪些方面。我們應該選擇我們希望關注的特定方面，這樣做不是為了一個粗略的，模糊的概念，而只是一個確切的概念。以下步驟提供了一種快速而有效的方式來選擇和澄清問題。
1 List as many specific subheadings as you can that are included under the broad, general issue you have chosen. In the case of an important controversial issue, your list may include more than a dozen subheadings, each of which is a minor issue in itself and therefore a challenge to your critical thinking.
1 列出盡可能多的特定小標題，這些小標題包含在您選擇的廣泛的一般問題之下。?在一個重要的爭議問題中，你的清單可能包括十幾個小標題，每個小標題本身就是一個小問題，因此對你的批判性思維構成挑戰(zhàn)。
2 Decide exactly which specific issue (subheading) you are concerned with. Seldom will you be able to treat all specific issues adequately. The one or ones you choose should not only meet your interest but also fit the occasion and purpose of your analysis and the amount of time and space you have available.
2 確定你所關心的具體問題（副標題）。?您很少能夠充分處理所有具體問題。您選擇的一個或多個不僅要滿足您的興趣，還要符合分析的時機和目的以及您可用的時間和空間量。
3 Express the specific issue (subheading) you are concerned within one or more clear, carefully focused questions. Doing this helps keep the subsequent inquiry focused and prevents your drifting from the issue. If the questions are written out, when your thoughts move in a certain direction, you can quickly glance at the questions and decide whether that direction is likely to be productive.
2 用一個或多個清晰，專注的問題表達您關心的具體問題（副標題）?。這樣做有助于保持后續(xù)調(diào)查的重點并防止您從問題中偏離出來。如果問題被寫出來，當你的想法朝某個方向移動時，你可以快速瀏覽問題并決定這個方向是否有可能產(chǎn)生效果。
Let's see how these three steps apply to some actual issues.
讓我們看看這三個步驟如何適用于一些實際問題。
SAMPLE ISSUE: ABORTION
問題案例：流產(chǎn)
In January 1973 the U.S. Supreme Court decided in Roe v. Wade that abortion was legal. Yet as we enter the final decade of this century the American people are sharply divided on the matter. Like most controversial matters, the issue of abortion is not merely a single issue but a cluster of smaller issues. No contribution to the discussion of abortion is likely to be worthwhile unless it begins with an awareness of that fact. Here is how our three-step approach can help you separate the individual parts of that cluster and deal with them meaningfully. (For the sake of brevity, the left column presents the subheading in the form it might first occur to you, and the right column shows how, after deciding that you were concerned with it, you might refine the subheading into a question.)
1973年1月，美國最高法院在Roe訴韋德案中裁定墮胎是合法的。然而，當我們進入本世紀的最后十年時，美國人民在這個問題上分歧很大。像大多數(shù)有爭議的事情一樣，墮胎問題不僅僅是一個問題，而是一系列小問題。除非人們認識到這一事實，否則對討論墮胎沒有任何貢獻。以下是我們的三步式方法如何幫助您將該群集的各個部分分開并有意義地處理它們。（為了簡潔起見，左欄以可能首先出現(xiàn)的形式顯示了小標題，右欄顯示了在決定關注它之后，如何將小標題改進為一個問題。）
The Subheading:
副標題：
A woman's right over her body
一個女人對她的身體的權利?
The Question:
副標題：
Does a woman have the right to decide how her body will be used? If so, should the fetus be considered a part of her body?
女人是否有權決定如何使用她的身體？如果是這樣，胎兒是否應該被視為她身體的一部分？
The Subheading:
副標題：
The doctor's role
醫(yī)生的角色
The Question:
問題：
Does the doctor have an obligation only to the patient (the woman) or to the fetus as well?
醫(yī)生是否僅對患者（女性）或胎兒有義務？
The Subheading:
The status of the fetus
胎兒的狀態(tài)
The Question:
At what point, if any, during a pregnancy does the fetus become a human being?
在懷孕期間，如果有的話，什么時候胎兒會變成人類？
The Subheading:
The role of law
法律的作用
The Question:
If the fetus at some point during the pregnancy becomes a human being, do the enforcers of the law (the police and the courts)have any obligation to protect its right?
如果胎兒在懷孕期間的某個時刻成為人類，法律的執(zhí)法者（警察和法院）是否有義務保護其權利？
The Subheading:
The stage of the pregnancy懷孕的階段
The Question:
At what times during a pregnancy, if any, should an abortion be permitted? (First three months? First six months? Any time before birth?)
在懷孕期間，如果有的話，應該允許墮胎嗎？（前三個月？前六個月？出生前任何時間？）
The Subheading:
The age of the woman女人的年齡
The Question:
Should the woman's age be a factor in the decision whether to permit an abortion? Should a child of thirteen be treated the same as a woman of forty?
該女性的年齡應該是決定是否允許墮胎的一個因素？十三歲的孩子應該像四十歲的女人一樣對待嗎？
The Subheading:
Cases of rape and incest強奸和亂倫案件
The Question:
Should cases of rape and incest be treated differently from other cases? That is, does the fact that the woman was raped or impregnated by a close relative create a special warrant for abortion?
對強奸和亂倫的案件應否與其他案件區(qū)別對待？也就是說，這名婦女是否被強奸或被近親侵害的事實是否會為墮胎制造特別令？
The Subheading:
Parental consent for minors
未成年人的父母同意
The Question:
Should parental consent be required before abortions are performed on minors?
在對未成年人進行墮胎之前，是否需要父母同意？
The Subheading:
Government assistance for the poor
政府對窮人的援助
The Question:
Should the government, through Medicaid, pay for the abortions of women who lack the financial means to pay for them themselves?
政府是否應該通過醫(yī)療補助計劃為沒有財力支付的婦女墮胎支付費用？
The Subheading:
The right of the father
父親的權利
The Question:
does the husband or lover of a woman who seeks an abortion have any right? If he opposes the abortion, should the woman be permitted to have it anyway?
尋求墮胎的婦女的丈夫或情人是否有權利？如果他反對墮胎，那么女性是否應該允許擁有它？
The Subheading:
A constitutional amendment to ban abortion
禁止墮胎的憲法修正案
The Question:
should the U.S. Constitution be amended to ban abortion (or to extend the guarantees of law to the unborn from the moment of conception?)
是否應修改美國憲法以禁止墮胎（或從受孕那一刻起將法律保障延伸到未出生的地方？）
SAMPLE ISSUE: BOXING
樣品問題：拳擊
The ring Record Book lists 337 professional boxers who have died from injuries sustained in prize fights since World War II. In the United States alone, 120 boxers have died form such injuries. With the death of a Korean fighter, DukDoo Kim, following a barrage of punches by Ray "Boom Boom" Mancini,an issue that had received the public's attention many times previously raged once again: Should boxing be outlawed? Like the abortion issue, this one is really a cluster of smaller issues. Here is how the three-step approach to clarifying issues would apply to it.
“環(huán)形記錄簿”列出了337名職業(yè)拳擊手，他們因二戰(zhàn)以來在職業(yè)拳擊中受傷而死亡。僅在美國，就有120名拳手因傷勢而死亡。隨著韓國戰(zhàn)斗機Duk Doo Kim的死亡，在Ray“Boom Boom”Mancini一連串的拳擊之后，一個曾多次受到公眾關注的問題再次激烈：?拳擊應該被禁止？?像墮胎問題一樣，這個問題真的是一系列小問題。以下是澄清問題的三步法如何應用于此。
The Subheading:
The boxer's right to earn a living拳擊手的謀生權利?
The Question: Would the outlawing of boxing be an unfair denial of the boxer's right to earn a living?問題：?拳擊的打擊是不公平否認拳擊手的謀生權利？
The Subheading:
Boxing and mental health拳擊和心理健康?
The Question: ?Is the expression of violence that takes place in a boxing match an emotionally healthy experience for the fighters themselves? For the spectator?問題：?發(fā)生在拳擊比賽中的暴力表達對戰(zhàn)士本身而言是一種情感上健康的體驗嗎？對于觀眾？
The Subheading:
The popularity of boxing拳擊的普及?
The Question: How valid is the argument that boxing should be allowed to continue because it has historically been, and continues to be, very popular?問題：?拳擊應該被允許繼續(xù)的論點有多合理，因為它歷來一直而且將繼續(xù)非常受歡迎？
The Subheading:
The classification of boxing as a sport拳擊作為一種運動?的?分類
The Question: ?Is boxing properly classified as a sport? That is, does the fact that the contestants aim to render each other senseless disqualify it from that classification?問題：拳擊是否適當?shù)貧w類為運動？也就是說，參賽者的目標是否使對方無意義地使其不符合該分類標準？
The Subheading:
Overcoming the dangers克服危險?
The Question: ?Is it possible, perhaps by modifying the rules or the equipment, to eliminate or at least reduce the physical danger to fighters?問題：?是否有可能通過修改規(guī)則或設備來消除或至少減少戰(zhàn)士的身體危險？
The Subheading:
The effects of being punched被打 的?效果
The Question: ?Exactly what effect does a punch have on the human body, particularly the brain? What is the cumulative effect of the punches received during ten or fifteen rounds of boxing? During a career?
問題：一拳對人體特別是大腦有什么影響？在十輪或十五輪拳擊中獲得的拳擊的累積效應是什么？在職業(yè)生涯中？
SAMPLE ISSUE: JUVENILE CRIME
少年犯罪
For much of this century juvenile criminals have been accorded special treatment in the courts. Because the emphasis was on rehabilitating rather than on punishing them, the charges were different – "juvenile delinquency" rather than assault or murder – as were the proceedings and disposition of the case –"hearings" rather than trails, sealed records rather than publicity, and lectures rather than imprisonment. In recent years, however, the public has become dissatisfied with that system. Many people are demanding that criminals be treated as criminals, regardless of their age. The broad issue is usually expressed as "Should juvenile criminals be treated the same as adult criminals?" however, like the other issues we have examined in this chapter, this broad issue represents a cluster of smaller issues, which you might clarify as follows:
在本世紀的大部分時間里，少年犯都被法院給予特殊待遇。因為重點在于康復而不是懲罰他們，所以指控是不同的 - “少年犯罪”而不是毆打或謀殺 - 案件的訴訟和處理也是如此 - “聽證”而不是追蹤，密封記錄而不是宣傳，并講課而不是監(jiān)禁。但近年來，公眾對這一制度不滿。許多人要求將罪犯視為犯罪分子，不論其年齡。這個廣泛的問題通常表達為“少年犯應該像成年罪犯一樣對待嗎？”然而，就像我們在本章中討論過的其他問題一樣，這個廣泛的問題代表了一系列較小的問題，你可能會澄清如下：
The Subheading:
Causes of juvenile crime青少年犯罪的原因?
The Question: ?Are juvenile delinquents alone responsible for their criminality? Are parents and others in society (makers of violent films,for example) also responsible? If others are responsible, should the law"get tough" with them? How?問題：?青少年犯罪者是否獨自負責其犯罪行為？父母和社會中的其他人（例如暴力電影的制作人）是否也負有責任？如果其他人有責任，法律是否應該與他們“硬”？?怎么樣？
The Subheading:
The age of responsibility責任年齡?
The Question: ?Is it reasonable or fair to hold people responsible for their actions before they are old enough to understand their moral and legal quality? At what age does a person reach such understanding?問題：?在他們年齡足以理解他們的道德和法律質(zhì)量之前，讓人們對他們的行為負責是合理或公平的嗎？一個人到了什么年齡才能達到這樣的理解？
The Subheading:
Similarities or differences between juveniles and adults青少年與成年人之間的相似或不同?
The Question: ?Is it reasonable to hold a fourteen-year-old(or a sixteen- or eighteen-year-old) as accountable as a twenty-one- or thirty-year-old?問題：?將十四歲（或十六歲或十八歲）視為二十一歲或三十歲的孩子是否合理？
The Subheading:
Effect of publicity on juvenile crime宣傳對青少年犯罪 的影響
The Question: Will publicizing young people's crimes deter juvenile crime? Will it assist in the process of rehabilitation?問題：?宣傳青少年犯罪是否會威懾青少年犯罪？它會協(xié)助康復過程嗎？
The Subheading:
effects of imprisonment on juveniles監(jiān)禁對青少年 的影響
The Question: ?What effect will imprisonment have on teenagers? On preteens?
問題：?監(jiān)禁會對青少年產(chǎn)生什么影響？關于preteens？
The Subheading:
Differences in crimes不同的犯罪?
The Question: ?Should all juvenile crimes be handled alike? That is, should the criminal's age be considered in certain crimes (Vandalism and shoplifting, for example), but not considered in others (rape and murder,for example)?問題：?所有的少年犯應該如何處理？也就是說，如果罪犯的年齡在某些罪行中被考慮（例如，破壞行為和偷竊行為），而在其他人身上則不予考慮（例如強奸和謀殺）？
The Subheading:
Recidivism累犯?
The Question: ?Should chronic juvenile offenders be treated differently from first-time offenders? If so, in what way?問題：?慢性青少年罪犯是否應該與初次犯罪者區(qū)別對待？如果真是這樣，那么是以哪種方式？
The Subheading:
Prisons監(jiān)獄?
The Question: ?If juvenile offenders are sent to prison (say,for crimes of violence), should they be housed in the same institutions as adult criminals?問題：?如果少年犯被送入監(jiān)獄（比如暴力犯罪），他們是否應該與成年犯同在一個機構？
By identifying precisely the issue we wish to examine, we not only ensure a clearer focus and increase the chance that we will not exceed our competency. We also make the job of analysis easier. The fewer aspects competing for our attention, the less distracted and confused we are likely to be. Even on those rare occasions when we will be addressing the entire issue in all its aspects, careful identification of those aspects can make our inquiry more orderly and purposeful. Finally, precise identification of the issue lessens the chance of oversimplifying complex matters.通過明確地確定我們希望研究的問題，我們不僅確保更明確的重點，并增加我們不超過我們的能力的機會。我們也使分析工作更容易。爭奪我們注意力的方面越少，我們就越不會分心和困惑。即使在罕見的情況下，我們將在所有方面解決整個問題，仔細確定這些方面可以使我們的調(diào)查更有序和有目的。最后，對問題的精確識別減少了將復雜事項過于簡單化的可能性。
APPLICATIONS
應用
1 This?chapter?explains?three?steps?that?are?helpful?in?selecting?and?clarifying?an?issue?for?analysis.?Apply?those?steps?with?each?of?two?of?the?following?topics.?Be?sure?to?select?topics?that?interest?you,?because?applications?in?subsequent?chapters?will?build?on?this?one.?
本章介紹的三個步驟對選擇和澄清的問題進行分析很有幫助。
應用這些步驟，以下兩個主題。
一定要選擇你有興趣的主題，因為在后面的章節(jié)中的應用將建立在這一個上。
Should?the?federal?income?tax?system?in?the?United?States?be?reformed??
是否應該在美國聯(lián)邦所得稅制度改革？
Is?sex?education?desirable?in?elementary?and?secondary?schools??
性教育是否應當設立在在小學和中學？
Should?the?divorce?laws?be?tightened?so?that?it?is?more?difficult?to?obtain?a?divorce??
是否應該讓離婚法收緊，使其更難獲得離婚？
Is?it?possible?for?a?sane?person?to?commit?suicide??
是否有可能一個理智的人自殺？
Does?a?government?ever?have?the?right?to?impose?the?death?penalty?for?a?criminal?offense??
難道政府曾經(jīng)有判處死刑的刑事罪行的權利？
Should?prostitution?be?legalized??
是否應讓賣淫合法化？
Should?lobbying?by?special?interest?groups?be?outlawed??
應該受到特殊利益集團的游說予以取締？
Should?advertising?be?banned?from?children's?TV?(for?example,?from?Saturday?morning?cartoon?shows)??
是否應讓廣告從兒童電視禁止（例如，從周六上午卡通節(jié)目）？Are?people?who?practice?devil?worship?insane??
瘋狂膜拜的人是否是精神病？
Is?it?reasonable?to?believe?in?UFOs??
是否有理由相信不明飛行物？
Are?male?athletes?naturally?superior?to?female?athletes??
是否男運動員自然優(yōu)于女運動員？
The following topics were included in the applications for Chapter 1.Choose one of the topics and apply the three steps for clarifying an issue presented in this chapter. (Disregard your earlier analysis of the issue.)
以下主題已包含在第1章的申請中。選擇其中一個主題，并采用三個步驟來闡明本章中提出的問題。（不要理會你之前對這個問題的分析。）
Should freshman composition be are quired course for all students?
大一新生應該成為所有學生的必修課嗎？
Should athletes be tested for anabolic steroid use?
運動員是否應該進行合成代謝類固醇的測試？
Should creationism be taught in high school biology classes?
創(chuàng)造論應該在高中生物課中教授嗎？
Should polygamy be legalized?
一夫多妻應該合法化嗎？
Should be voting age be lowered to sixteen?
投票年齡應該降至16歲？
Should extremist groups like the Ku Klux Klan be allowed to hold rallies on public property?
像三K黨這樣的極端主義組織應該被允許舉行公共財產(chǎn)集會嗎？
Should the prison system give greater emphasis to the punishment or to the rehabilitation of inmates?
監(jiān)獄系統(tǒng)應該更重視懲罰還是修復犯人？
Should doctors and clinics be required to notify parents of minors when they prescribe birth control devices for the minors?
是否應要求醫(yī)生和診所在為未成年人開具計劃生育裝置時通知未成年人的父母？
這個系列是對超越感覺：批判性思考指南 07版做的翻譯練習，如果覺得有幫助可以點鏈接購買第九版中文，英文原版在這里Beyond Feelings：A Guide to Critical Thinking （英語）
