arguement：論證分析

需要能分析作者的思路（作者會用不同的論據(jù)論證自己的觀點）

gre：看中邏輯論證 用簡潔的語言表達(dá)觀點-指出別人的論證有問題

reasoning comes first

toefl：看中語言表達(dá)，用多樣文字表達(dá)簡單觀點

wording comes first

arguement

文章框架：

introduction：

復(fù)述結(jié)論+歸納假設(shè)+論證+出論證問題

main body：

論證謬誤1：作者觀點+他錯了+為啥錯+總結(jié)

論證謬誤2：作者觀點+他錯了+為啥錯+總結(jié)

論證謬誤3：作者觀點+他錯了+為啥錯+總結(jié)

conclusion：

簡短總結(jié)自己的評論

How to coompose the introduction?

The author claims that....

簡潔的復(fù)述原文中的結(jié)論或主張

With the following arguements....

歸納原論述的假設(shè)和論據(jù)

However, the reasoning is ....

指出原文論證中的問題

? ? ? ? -------指出作者的論點

It is argued in the statement that +C

In the argument, the author claims/believes/states/holds firm to that +C

/*

eg：

? ? ? ? --------抄一遍：

the Mozaer school of music should be the first choice or parents considering enrolling their child in music lessons.?

? ? ? ? --------改寫原文：

parents should prioritize the Mozart School of Music when considering enrolling their child for music education.

*/

? ? ? ? ?-------指出作者的論據(jù)：

To support her position, the author mentions /cites the following reasons and evidence：

? ? ? ? ? -------歸納總結(jié)：

On the one hand, the MSM welcomes all students with a wider range of courses offering; on the other hand, the faculty member covers many famous musicians and many alumni are also musicians with fortune and fame.?

全部抄寫/隨便抄寫兩個+ and so on

? ? ? ? ? --------指出作者的論證有問題

Option 1 : Howver, there are some logical problems in the author's reasoning that would be discissed below.

Option 2 : At first glance, the author's argumentation seems plausible to some extent. However, with a detailed analysis, the readers could still identify some logical fallacies that might seriously undermine the original chain of reasoning the statement.?

? ? ? ? ?----------論點分析

· 真/假/好/壞/對/錯

· 觀點 態(tài)度 建議 傾向性 = 中心思想

· 先出現(xiàn) “結(jié)果” clearly / thus / therefore / as a result / as a consequence?

eg(160）：

The author claims that using high-intensity lighting is clearly the most effective way to combat crime instead of using the money currnetly spending on picycle patrolsTo support her position, the author mentions /cites the following reasons and evidence: comparing the situaion in Believille and Amburg, using . At first glance, the author's argumentation seems plausible to some extent. However, with a detailed analysis, the readers could still identify some logical fallacies that might seriously undermine the original chain of reasoning the statement.

Intro 總結(jié)：

為了使開頭的方式更加多變，我們應(yīng)該熟記一下這些關(guān)鍵詞并能夠到靈活運用的程度，這樣，再聯(lián)系或者考試的時候，就可以靈活地寫出自己的模板了。

------rest on, depend on, rely on , be based on

------however, nevertheless, nonetheless

------additionally, in addition, moreover, furthermore

------unacceptable, unconvincing, unpersuasive

------ungrounded, groundless, unfounded, unwarranted

------unsound, weak, unsubstantiated, flawed, faulty, fallacious, fallible, erroneous

------doubtful, dubious, doubtable, suspicious, suspect

------problematic,?

How to compose the conclusion?

Conclusively/ In conclusion/ Overall / at the emd of the argument / from the previous analysis / therefore/ in short / in summary . Accrodingly / all in all / to sum up

Main Body of Arguement

我要寫的第一個段落-

? ? ? ? ? ? ?--讓步--

我要寫的第二個段落-

? ? ? ? ? ? --讓步--

我要寫的第三個段落

Analytical Reasoning Structure

正文的策略

主要是對原文論述的：

--論據(jù)

--假設(shè)

--中間結(jié)論

--最終結(jié)論

進(jìn)行駁斥。

展開方式：

指出作者的思路，要讀清楚作者是如何想要運用這個論據(jù)去支持論點的

指出作者的論據(jù)有一定的邏輯錯誤，或者作者在運用論據(jù)的時候有沒有考慮周全

所以作者的邏輯錯誤在哪里，有哪些其他的可能性，在原論述的論證中加入額外信息加強或者削弱元論證

小總結(jié)：作者在這個論據(jù)的使用上有不當(dāng)之處。

/* eg

Argument P3: faculty = famous musicians

1.分析作者思路：

2.指出作者的邏輯錯誤

3.詳細(xì)論證作者錯誤

4.小總結(jié)

*/

Logical Fallacy 1: Causality（因果邏輯錯誤）

· over-simplified causal realation analysis

· 在statement中，會有兩個facts一前一后或者同時出現(xiàn)，那么作者會認(rèn)為這兩個facts之前一定會存在因果關(guān)系，但是作者的這個思路是不對的。

--------一果多因

--------一因多果

--------無因無果

· 怎么判斷：一定要結(jié)合論據(jù)和論點一起判斷作者的強加的因果關(guān)系

/* eg160：

因果反駁邏輯錯誤：

B+HIL = VB decrease

1.分析作者思路：

The author unfairly claims that the installation of the high intensity lightning in the Believille should be the major contributor to the candalism reduction.?

2.指出作者的邏輯錯誤：
The author proposes here an oversimplified causal relationship analysis by carelessly or deliberately failing either to include other potential factors leading to the same consequences in the reasoning or to provide reasonable explanations for her ignorance.?

3.詳細(xì)論證作者錯誤：

On the one hand, not all the candalism should happen in the night, some or many of which occur in the day time, when the lightning is turned off. Thus, the reduction of the candalism must result from other actions. On the other hand, it is quite possible that believille also intensifies the police power in the city and strengthens the penalty for crimes, which greatly helps the crime rates immediately.?

4.小總結(jié)：

As a result, the author cannot convince the public that the installation of the high intensity lightning indeed brings many benefits to the controlling of crime rates in Belleville.?

*/?

Logical Fallacy II: Analogy（類比邏輯錯誤）

· 在statement中有兩個完全不同的entities”A和B“

· 作者會簡單地認(rèn)為在A好的也可以用在B

· 作者就沒有考慮到A和B是完全不一樣的兩個東西

· However, the author fails to consider that A and B should be two totally different entities.?

· 情況1：A和B是兩個不一樣的個體

· 差異性： differences between two individuals/ cities/industries/companies

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?----when A and B are representing two distinct individuals, the author fails to justify her ignorance of the essential differences ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? between the two individuals.?

·情況2： A是個體，B是整體

· inapproriate generalization : a single selected representative may not display the mainstream characteristics of a group

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?----When A is an individual but B represents the entire cluster, the author might have ignored that A might be not so representative as to cover/contain all possible characteristics of the cluster components, for some of those characteristics are mutually exclusive.?

·情況3： A是整體，B是個體

· possible anomalies: there should be no guarantee that one randomly selected individual from a group would deinetely follow the same trend?

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? -----When A describes the average situation of the froup while B is a selected inndividual from that group, we need to clarify that A represents mainly the average situation of all clustered individuals, and there is no guarantee that a randomly picked individual from the group would definetely reflected the same pattern/traits because it might be an outlier.

分析流程：

1.分析作者思路：作者認(rèn)為B+L 好代表A+ L也好

2.指出作者的邏輯錯誤：A跟B是兩個不同的個體，作者犯了一個類比的錯誤

3.詳細(xì)論證作者錯誤：（B+L 好是因為B的某個特性。這個特性在A沒有或者完全不同。而如果A在沒有跟B有這個同樣特性的前提下加了L，L則無效。）*1~2個能用來反駁的本質(zhì)特性區(qū)別

4.小總結(jié) 以上理由可以看出A+L不一定好。

/* 160.eg

1.分析作者思路：

? ? ?Last, the author goes further by suggesting that the city of Amburg could refer to the high-intensity lightning in Believille to reduce vandalism.?

2.指出作者的邏輯錯誤:?

? ? ?However, the author does not consider that great differences may exist between those two cities, and such differences would weaken the analogy of the two.

3.詳細(xì)論證作者錯誤：?

? ? Chances are that crimes in the city of Belleville mostly happen in the night time, and the propose of installing high-intensity lightning is to expose vandals. Yet, yandalism in Amburg may often occur in bright day light, so lightning at night would be rendered usless, which could also justify the initiative of employing patrols during the day in the first place. Furthermore, granted that vandalism happens at night in both cities, the well-disigned city layout of Belleville might facilltate the high-intensity illumination to prevent crimes from happening in some corners, On the contrary, the complicated road intersection and the comparatively tall and dense buildings in Amburg might create more shadows with the illumination, providing shelters for more criminal activities.?

4.小總結(jié)：

? ? ?As a result, the author cannot simply propose that Amburg should copy the successful experience of Belleville to control the rate of vandalism.?

類比反駁

1.分析作者思路：

2.指出作者的邏輯錯誤

3.詳細(xì)論證作者錯誤

? ? It is highly possible that the customers of CC might already have developed the habit of listening to the radio for some consuming suggestions, but the other businesses might focus on totally different customers, who might either be those industrial companies or institutions or be those customers who go to other promotional channels such as TV or social media for consumption advice.?

4.小總結(jié)

Logically Fallacy III: Counter Arguing

· 反說

· the basis of such counter arguing is to identify how the author tries to establish the supporting relations between?

1.分析作者思路：

The author claims that the emplloyment of the police patrol bicycles in the Amburg should be discontinued because it only keeps the constant crime rates.

2.指出作者的邏輯錯誤：

However, the author fails to consider that the crimes would have increased, had the city not used such bicycles.

3.詳細(xì)論證作者錯誤：

In other words, the bicycles did prevent the crimes from increasing and contribute to the controlling of local vandalism.

4. 小總結(jié)：

Thus, the statement that the bicycles should be discontinued could not hold water.

看到百分比想絕對值

1.分析作者思路：

The author says that 39% of MAC is surely greater than 29% of YC.

2.指出作者的邏輯錯誤：
Without considering / covering the calculationg basis, the author cannot simply make comparision between two percentages.?

3.詳細(xì)論證作者錯誤：

Suppose, thae retail expenditure of the MAC should be 100 Euro, so the corresponding 39% should be 39 Euro, while the retail expenditure of the YC could be 10000 Eurom and the corresponding 25% should be 225 Euro. From such an analysis we could easily see that 39% is not necessarily greater than 25% percent.?

4. 小總結(jié)：

Thus, the author cannot justify her argument as she expects/wishes.?

結(jié)尾：

Accordingly,?