1. tectonics :? the branch of geology studying the folding and faulting of the earth's crust.?
E.g. Geologists describe the motion of the plates and the consequences of such motion as plate tectonics. 地質(zhì)學(xué)家把板塊運(yùn)動(dòng)及這種運(yùn)動(dòng)所造成的后果看作是板塊構(gòu)造運(yùn)動(dòng).
Wiki: Tectonics,from the?Late Latin?tectonicus?from the?Ancient Greek?τεκτονικ??, "pertaining to?building", is the process that controls the structure and properties of the Earth's crust and its evolution through time. In particular, it describes the processes of?mountain building, the growth and behavior of the strong, old cores of continents known as?cratons, and the ways in which the relatively rigid?plates?that constitute the Earth's outer shell interact with each other.
2. crust : the outer layer of the Earth . E.g : Earth quakes can result from stresses in the earth's crust.地殼內(nèi)的應(yīng)力可能引起地震.
Wiki : In?geology, the?crust?is the outermost solid shell of a rocky?planet?or?natural satellite, which is chemically distinct from the underlying?mantle. The crusts of?Earth, the?Moon,Mercury,Venus,Mars,Io, and other planetary bodies have been generated largely byigneousprocesses, and these crusts are richer in?incompatible elements?than their respective mantles. The Earth's crust is composed of distinctly different?continental crust?and?oceanic crust, which have different chemical compositions and physical properties, and which were formed by different geological processes.
3. climate zones:?
4. altitude: elevation especially above sea level or above the earth's surface
? E.g. What is the altitude of the top of the mountain?
Wiki: Altitude?or?height(sometimes known as?depth) is defined based on the context in which it is used (aviation, geometry, geographical survey, sport, and many more). As a general definition, altitude is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or "up" direction, between a reference?datum?and a point or object. The reference datum also often varies according to the context. Although the term altitude is commonly used to mean the?height above sea level?of a location, in?geography?the term?elevation?is often preferred for this usage.
5.flora and fauna : Wild fauna and flora are important integrants of ecosystem野生動(dòng)植物是生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的重要組成部分.
Wiki: Fauna?is all of the?animal?life of any particular region or time. The corresponding term for?plants?is?flora. Flora, fauna and other forms of life such as?fungi?are collectively referred to as?biota.?Zoologists?and?paleontologists?use?fauna?to refer to a typical collection of animals found in a specific time or place, e.g. the "Sonoran Desert?fauna" or the "Burgess Shale?fauna".Paleontologists?sometimes refer to a sequence of?faunal stages, which is a series of rocks all containing similar fossils.
6. fold mountains : 褶皺山脈;
Fold mountains?aremountains?that form mainly by the effects of?folding?on layers within the upper part of the?Earth's crust. Before either?plate tectonic?theory developed, or the internal architecture of?thrust belts?became well understood, the term was used for most mountain belts, such as the?Himalayas.
7. The?Appalachian Mountains(/??p??l???n, -?le?t??n/?,French:les Appalaches), often called?the Appalachians, are a?system of mountains?in eastern?North America. The Appalachians first formed roughly 480 million years ago during the?Ordovician Period. It once reached elevations similar to those of the?Alps?and the?Rocky Mountains?before naturally occurring erosion.The Appalachian chain is a barrier to east-west travel, as it forms a series of?alternating ridgelines and valleys?oriented in opposition to most roads running east or west.
8.Rocky Mountains :? The?Rocky Mountains, commonly known as the?Rockies, are a major?mountain range?in western?North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch more than 3,000 miles (4,800 km) from the northernmost part of?British Columbia, in western?Canada, to?New Mexico, in the?South western United States. Within the?North American Cordillera, the Rockies are somewhat distinct from the?Pacific Coast Ranges?and the?Cascade Range?and?Sierra Nevada?which all lie further to the west.
10. block mountains : also called fault-block mountains, 斷塊山?Mountains or ranges that result from the upthrow of large fault blocks and that are separated from others by basins or troughs, producing an upland unit bounded by normal or reversed faults.斷層山
wiki: Fault-block mountains often result from?rifting, another indicator of tensional?tectonic?forces. These can be small or form extensive?rift valley?systems, such as the?East African Rift?zone.Death Valley?in?California?is a smaller example. There are two types of block mountains; lifted and?sloped.
11. magma: very hot liquid rock found below the earth's surface 巖漿；熔巖
wiki : is a mixture of molten or semi-molten?rock,volatiles?and solids that is found beneath the surface of the?Earth, and is expected to exist on other?terrestrial planets?and some?natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals, dissolved gas and sometimes gas bubbles. Magma often collects in?magma chambers?that may feed a?volcano?or solidify underground to form an?intrusion. Magma is capable of intruding into adjacent rocks (forming?igneousdikes?and?sills), extrusion onto the surface as?lava, and explosive ejection astephra?to form?pyroclastic rock.
