這部分講的是假設(shè)，我們談?wù)摰乃惺虑榉謨深愐活愂鞘聦?，另一類是觀點。所謂的事實就是不以任何一個人的意志為轉(zhuǎn)移。無論你，我還是其他人對這個事實的看法如何，她作為事實都不會受任何影響的不變。事實是客觀的存在。
觀點是人們的看法，是主觀的存在，一個人可能有一個觀點，甚至多個觀點。人與人的觀點不同。
而如果要讓別人接受你的觀點或者向別人表達你的觀點，就需要論證推理的過程。
推理過程是由前提和結(jié)論組成的。從前提得到結(jié)論。這個過程中會用到很多方法，比如總結(jié)，比如類比。
所有的前提在一個推理過程中都是被認定為真的。也就是必須確定前提是真才有論證的后面過程。如果前提是假的，就不存在后面的推理論證過程了。
而假設(shè)是一種沒有經(jīng)過認真推理過程的觀點。經(jīng)不起推敲，直接從人們的直覺或者生活經(jīng)驗中存在。這種假設(shè)可以避免人們每次都要痛苦推理的過程，為了讓人們在一個有很多共同點的世界里輕松的生活。所以會有很多經(jīng)不起推敲，沒有證據(jù)支持的假設(shè)。
毫無依據(jù)的假設(shè)
As we saw in Chapter 12, a conclusion is a judgment made after thinking (It may be carefully or hastily formed.) We reach conclusions through reasoning. An assumption, on the other hand, is an idea we have in mind without having thought about it. It is not arrived at by reasoning but merely taken for granted.
正如我們在第12章中看到的那樣，結(jié)論是在思考之后作出的一個判斷（它可能是小心謹慎地或倉促地形成的）。我們通過推理得出結(jié)論。另一方面，假設(shè)是我們沒有仔細考慮過的想法。這不是通過推理得出的，而僅僅?是理所當(dāng)然的?。
It is natural to make assumptions. Every day we make hundreds of them. Students walking across campus to class assume that the building is open, that the teacher is still alive and sufficiently motivated to be there, that their watches are accurate in indicating that it is time for class, and that going to class will help them learn the subject (or at least not hinder them from learning it). Without assumptions, we would have to ponder every word we utter, every move we make every single moment of every day. Obviously, that would represent an enormous output of energy. The net effect would be to increase our fatigue to an intolerable level and to hinder progress.
做出假設(shè)是很自然的。我們每天制造數(shù)百個假設(shè)。穿過校園走到課堂的學(xué)生認為建筑是開放的，老師仍然活動著，充滿動力去到那里，他們的手表準確地表明上課時間，而且上課將幫助他們學(xué)習(xí)主題（或至少不妨礙他們學(xué)習(xí)）。沒有假設(shè)，我們必須仔細思考每一個字，每一個動作我們每一天的每一刻。顯然這代表了巨大的能量輸出。其實際效果是將我們的疲勞感增加到難以忍受的程度并阻礙進步。
Fortunately, many of the assumptions we make are warranted. That is, they are justified in the particular circumstances. In the case of the students walking to class, probably every one of the assumptions they make is warranted. The experience of walking to class day after day and finding the building open and the teacher there with a helpful lecture to deliver has made those assumptions reasonable. In fact, even on the first day of class those assumptions would undoubtedly be warranted if the school were accredited and had published a schedule saying that class would be held at that time. (In that case, the justification to assume would not be quite so strong as later in the semester, but the assumptions would still be warranted.)
幸運的是，我們所做的許多假設(shè)都是有保證的。也就是說，他們在特定的情況下是合理的。在學(xué)生走上課堂的情況下，可能他們所做的每一個假設(shè)都是有保證的。每天步行去上課并找到建筑開放的經(jīng)驗以及那里的老師提供有用的講座來實現(xiàn)這些假設(shè)是合理的。事實上，即使在上課的第一天，如果學(xué)校獲得認證并公布了一個表示當(dāng)時將舉辦課程的時間表，那么這些假設(shè)無疑是合理的。 （在這種情況下，假設(shè)的理由不會像本學(xué)期晚些時候那么強烈，但假設(shè)仍然是有必要的。）
But what if something unexpected happened? If the class were at 8:00 A.M., the custodian may have neglected to open the door to the building. Or the teacher may have become ill that morning and stayed home. Would that make the students' assumptions that the building would be open and the teacher there unwarranted? No. in such cases we would say that the students were justified in assuming that those things would happen, but they just did not happen. What makes an assumption unwarranted is taking too much for granted. For example, if the students had heard on the previous evening's news that the teacher had just been seriously injured in an automobile accident, it would be unwarranted for them to assume he would be in class the next day.
但如果發(fā)生意外事件呢？如果課程是在上午8:00，保管人可能忽視了打開大樓的大門?；蛘撸莻€早上的老師可能會生病并留在家中。這是否會讓學(xué)生假設(shè)該建筑是開放的，那里的老師是不合理的？不，在這種情況下，我們會說學(xué)生有理由認為這些事情會發(fā)生，但他們只是沒有發(fā)生。沒有依據(jù)的假設(shè)太過于理所當(dāng)然。例如，如果學(xué)生們在前一天晚上的新聞中聽說過老師在車禍中剛剛受傷，那么他們認為他將在第二天上課是沒有理由的。
ASSUMPTIONS REFLECT OUTLOOK
假設(shè)反映了觀點
All the assumptions discussed so far have concerned relatively routine matters. Yet the network of assumptions people make goes far beyond the routine. It is intimately bound up with their outlook on a large and diverse number of subjects. People may assume that the elected officials of their city, state, and nation are honest and work for the interests of their constituents. Or they may assume the reverse. They may go to the polls each November confident that their vote matters or they may stay at home on the assumption that it does not. When a world crisis develops that involves the nation (the outbreak of armed conflict is the most dramatic example), people may assume that their country is entirely in the right, or that it is entirely in the wrong, or that some fault lies on each side.
到目前為止所討論的所有假設(shè)都涉及相對常規(guī)的問題。然而，人們所做的假設(shè)遠遠超出了常規(guī)。它與他們對大量不同主題的觀點密切相關(guān)。人們可能會假設(shè)，他們的城市、州和民族的民選官員是誠實的，并為他們的選民的利益而工作。或者他們可能會假設(shè)相反。他們可能會在每年11月份參加民意調(diào)查，以確信他們的投票很重要，或者他們可能會在家中假設(shè)他們投票沒那么重要。當(dāng)涉及國家的世界危機發(fā)展時（武裝沖突爆發(fā)是最激動人心的例子），人們可能會認為他們的國家完全是對的，或者完全是錯的，或者每個國家都有一些錯誤面。
Many people take it for granted that the teachers in their local schools are adequately trained in the subjects they teach, have carefully and fairly worked out their grading systems, and have painstakingly developed meaningful lessons. They may also assume that the school's administrators are aware of what is happening in the various classrooms, have developed precise methods of evaluating faculty performance, and are applying those methods to identify the most and least effective performances. Others, of course, assume exactly the opposite.
許多人認為當(dāng)?shù)貙W(xué)校的教師對他們所教的科目有充分的培訓(xùn)，認真和公正地制定了他們的評分系統(tǒng)，并且辛苦地開發(fā)了有意義的課程。他們也可以假設(shè)學(xué)校的管理人員知道各個教室發(fā)生的事情，制定了評估教師績效的精確方法，并且正在應(yīng)用這些方法來確定最有效和最沒有效的表現(xiàn)。當(dāng)然，其他人則完全相反。
Most people hold similar assumptions about other areas of endeavor: about medicine, law, and other professions, about industry, about small and large businesses, about the numerous organizations found in society. And their general assumptions usually govern their particular ones. The person who assumes that all doctors are quacks will be inclined to assume that the particular doctors she visits is also a quack.
大多數(shù)人對其他領(lǐng)域有著類似的假設(shè)：關(guān)于醫(yī)藥，法律和其他行業(yè)，關(guān)于工業(yè)，關(guān)于小型和大型企業(yè)，關(guān)于社會中發(fā)現(xiàn)的眾多組織。而他們的一般假設(shè)通常管理他們的特定的假設(shè)。假設(shè)所有醫(yī)生都是庸醫(yī)的人會傾向于認為她訪問的特定醫(yī)生也是庸醫(yī)。
Which of those assumptions are warranted? Those for which the person has sufficient experience that supports that assumption better than any other one. What is"sufficient" depends on the situation; the more general and sweeping the assumption, the more experience would be needed. Unfortunately, it is very easy to take too much for granted, to assume something with little or no experience or for which the experience leads equally well to an entirely different view.
哪些假設(shè)是必要的？那些人所擁有的經(jīng)驗足以支持這一假設(shè)的比其他人更好。什么是“充足的”取決于情況;?更普遍和更廣泛的假設(shè)，就需要更多的經(jīng)驗。不幸的是，認為太理所當(dāng)然是很容易的，可以假設(shè)一些經(jīng)驗很少或沒有經(jīng)驗的人，或者對于這些經(jīng)驗，他們可以得出完全不同的看法。
POPULAR UNWARRANTED ASSUMPTIONS
常見的無依據(jù)的假設(shè)
Many viewers of the Dracula movies assume the main character was purely a fiction.They do so casually, with little or no warrant. The assumption is unwarranted, for there could easily have been a real-life villain that the horrible movie Dracula was patterned after. In fact, there was one. His name was Vlad Tepes, nicknamed "Dracula." Tepes was a fifteenth-century Rumanian nobleman who ruled so cruelly that peasants of the time regarded him as a human vampire.Though he never bit people's necks and drank their blood, he once invited the poor and sick people of his domain to a large feast and then set fire to the banquet hall. Another time a Turkish ambassador and his party nailed to their heads. Certainly, his most horrible deed was to have the heads of twenty thousand of his victims cut off and mounted on stakes for display.
許多德庫拉電影的觀眾認為主角純屬虛構(gòu)。他們這樣做是隨便的，很少或者沒有任何依據(jù)。這個假設(shè)是沒有根據(jù)的，因為可怕的電影“德古拉”之后很容易成為現(xiàn)實生活中的惡棍。其實有一個。他的名字叫Vlad Tepes，綽號“Draculya”。泰佩斯是一位十五世紀的羅馬尼亞貴族，他統(tǒng)治的時代非常殘酷，當(dāng)時的農(nóng)民把他當(dāng)作人類吸血鬼。雖然他從不咬人的脖子，喝了鮮血，但他曾邀請他的領(lǐng)域里的窮人和病人去參加一場盛大的盛宴，然后向宴會廳放火。另一次，土耳其大使和他的政黨釘著他們的頭。當(dāng)然，他最可怕的行為是把 兩萬人他的受害者的頭顱 切斷并登上賭注展示。
For decades many Americans assumed that China was a medically backward country. The basis of their assumption was little more than the more general assumption that the Chinese were socially backward. Because China was closed to Westerners, no substantial evidence was obtainable to support any assumption about Chinese medicine. So no assumption was warranted. (Since the early 1970s, when visitors were permitted in China, reports have suggested not only that their health care is quite advanced but that in general, it is better for the average person than what is available in the United States.)
幾十年來，許多美國人認為中國是一個醫(yī)療落后的國家。他們的假設(shè)基礎(chǔ)不過是中國人在社會上落后的更普遍的假設(shè)。由于中國不接受西方人，所以沒有實質(zhì)證據(jù)支持任何有關(guān)中國醫(yī)療的假設(shè)。所以沒有任何假設(shè)是有證據(jù)支持的。（自20世紀70年代初以來，當(dāng)訪問者被允許進入中國時，報道表明，不僅他們的醫(yī)療保健相當(dāng)先進，而且總的來說，對于一般人而言，這比美國的人更好。）
Similarly, the traditional assumption of white and black America about American Indian medicine men has been that they are charlatans, dispensing superstition that certainly can't help anyone who is really sick. This assumption is not based on any knowledge but merely on a generally derogatory view of the American Indian. Only in the past decade or two have many people begun to learn the value of the medicine man's treatment. The National Institute of Mental Health, for example, established a scholarship program to help Navajo Indians study "during ceremonials" under tribal medicine men. One of the supporters of this program, psychiatrist Robert Bergman, Knows a medicine man who "apparently cured a psychotic woman after a modern psychiatric hospital had failed to help her."
同樣，傳統(tǒng)的白人和黑人美國人對美國印度醫(yī)學(xué)家的假設(shè)一直認為他們是騙子，因為分配迷信肯定不能幫助任何真正生病的人。這種假設(shè)不是基于任何知識，而僅僅是對美國印第安人的普遍貶損的看法。只有在過去的十幾二十年中，很多人才開始學(xué)習(xí)藥物治療的價值。例如，美國國家精神衛(wèi)生研究所設(shè)立了一個獎學(xué)金計劃，以幫助納瓦霍印第安人研究部落醫(yī)學(xué)男性的“治愈儀式”。這項計劃的支持者之一，精神科醫(yī)生羅伯特伯格曼，知道一位醫(yī)生，“在一家現(xiàn)代精神病醫(yī)院無法治療精神病患者后顯然治愈了這位精神病患者。”
When the sexual liberation movement was launched in modern America, it was rather widely assumed that sexually promiscuous people are more emotionally healthy and stable than their "straight" neighbors; in other words, that the former do not need the crutch of traditional morality but can choose their behavior freely and independently. Actually, though supported by the existence of sexually oriented magazines, books, and films and by the mood of the time that sexual "rules" are narrow and restricting, there was no evidence linking promiscuity to emotional health. The assumption was probably grounded more in wishful thinking or acceptance of others' wishful thinking than any experience or evidence. In other words, it was unwarranted. (At least one study suggests that sexual promiscuity is the reverse of what was assumed: not a sign of strength but of deficiency. Dr. I. Emery Breitner claims the eighty-eight promiscuous people he studied were lonely people looking for companionship and approval and using sex as the means to find it. He terms them "love addict.")
當(dāng)性解放運動在現(xiàn)代美國發(fā)起時，人們普遍認為性淫亂的人比他們的“直接”鄰居在情感上更健康，更穩(wěn)定;換句話說，前者不需要傳統(tǒng)道德的拐杖，而是可以自由和獨立地選擇自己的行為。實際上，盡管有支持自由性取向的雜志，書籍和電影的存在，以及性“規(guī)則”狹隘和限制的時間的，但沒有證據(jù)將濫交與情緒健康聯(lián)系起來。假設(shè)可能更多地置于一廂情愿的想法或接受他人的一廂情愿的想法。換句話說，這是沒有根據(jù)的。 （至少有一項研究表明，性濫交與所假設(shè)的相反：不是力量的表現(xiàn)，而是缺陷。伊梅里布雷特納博士聲稱，他研究的八十八個混雜的人是孤獨的人尋找陪伴和認同，并用性作為找到它的手段。他稱他們?yōu)椤皭凵习a者”。）
One of the most common unwarranted assumptions is that the present European and American concept of childhood has always existed. Europeans and Americans' only reason for taking it for granted is that they have been familiar with that concept since their own earliest years. That, of course, is not sufficient reason. Naturally, the concept is familiar to them. But they have not experienced living and thinking in? 3000 B.C. or in A.D. 1500, so they have no warrant to assume that people in those times shared all our concepts and values. Indeed, the barest contact with history give ample suggestions that concepts and values change.
最常見的無理假設(shè)之一是，目前的歐洲和美國的童年概念一直存在。歐洲人和美國人認為理所當(dāng)然的唯一理由是自從他們自己早年以來就已經(jīng)熟悉這個概念。當(dāng)然，這不是充足的理由。自然，這個概念對他們來說很熟悉。但他們沒有經(jīng)歷過公元前3000年或公元1500年的生活和思考，所以他們沒有理由認為當(dāng)時的人們分享了我們所有的概念和價值觀。事實上，與歷史的最親密接觸給出了有關(guān)概念和價值觀發(fā)生變化的充分建議。
Was our concept of childhood shared by our ancestors back to the beginning of humanity? No. on the contrary, it is a relatively recent idea, dating back only a few centuries.Before that children were not considered to be different from adults in their nature and needs. As painting and sculpture of various times reveal, children were thought of as little adults.
我們的祖先的童年概念是否回歸到人類的開端？不，相反，這是一個相對較新的想法，可以追溯到幾個世紀。在此之前，兒童在天性和需求方面不被認為與成年人不同。隨著各種時代的繪畫和雕塑的發(fā)現(xiàn)，兒童被認為是小成人。
Very likely much of the tension between young people and their parents could be eliminated by a clearer understanding of how dramatically attitudes toward children have changed. As in so many situation however, such understanding can be reached only when the prevailing assumption is recognized and found unwarranted.
青少年和他們的父母之間的緊張關(guān)系很可能通過更明確地了解對兒童的顯著態(tài)度發(fā)生了改變而消除。然而，正如在許多情況下一樣，只有當(dāng)普遍的假設(shè)得到承認并被發(fā)現(xiàn)沒有根據(jù)時才能達成這種理解。
RECOGNIZING UNWARRANTED ASSUMPTIONS
識別毫無依據(jù)的假設(shè)
It is not too difficult to evaluate an assumption and decide whether or not it is warranted. The real difficulty is in identifying it in the first place. The reason for this is that, unlike the other problems in thinking we have discussed, assumptions are usually unexpressed. To recognize the assumptions in your thinking and the thinking of others, develop the habit of reading (and listening) between the lines. In other words, become sensitive to those ideas that are not stated but are nevertheless clearly implied. Consider this dialog:
評估一個假設(shè)并決定是否有理由并不困難。真正的困難在于首先確定它。其原因是，與我們討論過的思考中的其他問題不同，假設(shè)通常不被表達。要認識到你思想和他人思維的假設(shè)，培養(yǎng)閱讀（和傾聽）習(xí)慣。換句話說，對那些沒有說明但明確暗示的觀點變得敏感?？紤]這個對話框：
Cloris: I really don't understand why people make such a fuss about violence in films.
克洛里斯?：我真的不明白為什么人們對電影中的暴力行為進行這樣的爭論。
Mavis: they say that violent films harm viewers.
Mavis?：他們說暴力電影會傷害觀眾。
Cloris: That's silly. I've watched them all my life, and I've never done anything violent.
Cloris?：這很愚蠢。我一生都在看他們，我從來沒有做過任何暴力事情。
Cloris reasons that if she has watched violent films all her life yet hasn't done anything violent, violence in films can't be harmful. That reasoning reveals two assumptions Cloris may be unaware of. The first is that the only conceivable way for film violence to harm people is by making them violent. Is that assumption warranted? No. there is another way that film violence could conceivably do harm: by making people insensitive to others' pain and complacent about violence in real life. The second assumption is that Cloris'experience is necessarily typical. This assumption is also unwarranted because, unlike Cloris, others may have been led to violence by viewing film violence.
Cloris的理由是，如果她一生都看過暴力電影，卻沒有采取任何暴力行為，那么電影中的暴力就不會有害。這個推理揭示了克洛里斯可能不知道的兩個假設(shè)。首先，電影暴力傷害人的唯一可行方式是讓他們暴力。這個假設(shè)是否有用？不，還有另一種電影暴力可能會造成傷害的方式：讓人們對他人的痛苦感到敏感，并對現(xiàn)實生活中的暴力感到自滿。第二個假設(shè)是，Cloris的經(jīng)驗是必須的。這種假設(shè)也是沒有根據(jù)的，因為與克勞利斯不同，其他人可能因觀看電影暴力而導(dǎo)致暴力。
APPLICATIONS
應(yīng)用
Examine each of the following dialogues. Identify any assumptions made by the speakers. Be precise. If possible, decide whether the assumptions are warranted.
檢查以下每個對話。確定發(fā)言人所做的任何假設(shè)。準確。如果可能的話，決定是否保證這些假設(shè)。
Olaf: Did you hear the good news? School may not open on schedule this year.
奧拉夫?：你聽到這個好消息嗎？學(xué)校今年可能無法如期開學(xué)。
Olga: How come?
奧爾加?：怎么回事？?
Olaf: The teachers may be on strike.
奧拉夫?：老師可能會罷工。?
Olga: Strike? This ridiculous, They're already making good money.
奧爾加?：罷工？這可笑，他們已經(jīng)賺了好錢。
Janice: What movie is on at the theater tonight?
珍妮絲?：今晚劇院里有什么電影？?
Mike: I don't know the title. It's something about lesbians. Do you want to go?
邁克?：我不知道標題。這是關(guān)于女同性戀的事情。你想去嗎？?
Janice: No thanks. I'll wait for a quality film.
珍妮絲?：不用了，謝謝。我會等待一部優(yōu)質(zhì)的電影。
Boris: Boy, talk about unfair markers. Nelson's the worst.
鮑里斯?：男孩，談?wù)摬还降臉擞洝Ｄ釥柹亲钤愀獾摹?/p>
Bridget: Why? What did he do?
布里奇特?：為什么？他做了什么？
Boris: What did he do? He gave me a D – on the midterm, that's all – after I spent twelve straight hours studying for it. I may just make an appointment to see the dean about him.
鮑里斯?：他做了什么？他在中期為我提供了一個D - 就是這一切 - 在我花了連續(xù)十二個小時學(xué)習(xí)之后。我可能只是預(yù)約看看他的院長。
Mr. Smith: The Harrisons are having marital problems. I'll bet they'll be separating soon.
史密斯先生?：哈里森有軍事問題。我敢打賭他們很快就會分開。
Mr. Jones: How do you know?
瓊斯先生?：你怎么知道的？?
Mrs. Smith: I heard it at the supermarket. Helen told Gail and Gail told me.
史密斯夫人?：我在超市聽到了。海倫告訴蓋爾，蓋爾告訴我。
Mr. Jones: I knew it wouldn't work out. Jeb Harrison is such a blah person. I can't blame Ruth for wanting to leave him.
瓊斯先生?：我知道它不會奏效。杰布哈里森是這樣一個無情的人。我不能責(zé)怪露絲想要離開他。
Apply your critical thinking to the following cases. Be sure to identify all your assumptions and decide whether they are warranted.
將您的批判性思維應(yīng)用于以下案例。一定要確定你所有的假設(shè)，并決定他們是否有依據(jù)。
During his presidency, Ronald Reagan formally proposed a constitutional amendment permitting prayer in the public schools, arguing that it was time to "restore the simple freedom of our citizens to offer prayer in public schools and institutions."The amendment was worded as follows: "Nothing in this Constitution shall be construed to prohibit individual or group prayer in public schools or other pubic institutions. No person shall be required by the United States or by any state to participate in prayer." Do you endorse this amendment?
羅納德里根在擔(dān)任總統(tǒng)期間正式提出了允許在公立學(xué)校進行祈禱的憲法修正案，認為現(xiàn)在是“恢復(fù)公民的公民學(xué)校和機構(gòu)提供祈禱的簡單自由的時候了”。該修正案措詞如下：“本憲法中的任何內(nèi)容均不得解釋為禁止在公立學(xué)?；蚱渌W(xué)校進行個人或團體禱告，美國或任何州不得要求任何人參加禱告?！?你贊成這個修正案嗎？
A Cambridge, Massachusetts, man got tired of looking at his neighbor's uncut lawn and untrimmed shrubs, which reached above the second-story window, and took his grievance to court. The neighbor admitted to the judge that he hadn't cut the lawn in fourteen years,but he argued that he preferred a natural lawn to a manicured one and untrimmed trimmed shrubs. The judge decided he was perfectly within his legal rights in leaving his lawn and shrubs uncut, regardless of what his neighbor felt.
馬薩諸塞州劍橋的一個男人厭倦了看著他鄰居未割草的草坪和二層窗戶上方的未修剪的灌木，并向法庭投訴。鄰居向法官承認，他在十四年內(nèi)沒割草，但他認為他更喜歡修剪整齊的天然草坪，不修剪灌木。無論他的鄰居感受到什么，法官認為他完全沒有權(quán)利離開他的草坪和灌木。
Should parents who feel their college-age sons and daughters are being brainwashed by religious cults be allowed to kidnap their children and have them deprogrammed?
如果父母認為自己的大學(xué)時代的兒女正在被宗教邪教洗腦，他們是否被允許綁架他們的孩子并讓他們解除影響？
Should parents be allowed to keep their children out of school if they believe they can educate them better at home?
如果家長認為他們可以在家里更好地教育他們，應(yīng)該允許父母讓他們的孩子失學(xué)嗎？
Many motorcyclists object to the laws of some states that require them and their passengers to wear helmets.They believe they should be free to decide for themselves whether to wear a helmet. Do you agree?
許多摩托車手反對一些國家的法律，要求他們和乘客戴頭盔。他們認為他們應(yīng)該自由決定是否戴頭盔。?你同意嗎？
Group discussion exercise: Discuss one of the cases in application 2with two or three of your classmates. Try to reach consensus on the issue, taking care to avoid unwarranted assumptions. Be prepared to present your group's view (or the individual views) to the class.
小組討論練習(xí)：與你的兩個或三個同學(xué)討論申請2中的一個案例。嘗試就這個問題達成共識，注意避免不必要的假設(shè)。準備好向班級介紹團隊的觀點（或個人觀點）。
這個系列是對超越感覺：批判性思考指南 07版做的翻譯練習(xí)，如果覺得有幫助可以點鏈接購買第九版中文，英文原版在這里Beyond Feelings：A Guide to Critical Thinking （英語）
