What Is Evidence?
Summary
Kinds of Evidence
The most important kinds of evidence are personal experience, unpublished report, published report, eyewitness testimony, celebrity testimony, expert opinion, experiment, statistics, survey, formal observation, and research review.
Personal Experience 個人經(jīng)歷
評估個人經(jīng)歷是否足以支撐一個結(jié)論要確認(rèn):
1. 事情是典型代表性的還是獨(dú)一無二的 ;
2. 這種相似的個人經(jīng)驗(yàn)是否足夠多,足以支撐結(jié)論。
Unpublished Report 未公開的消息
閑言碎語、小道消息。處理此類問題需要評估:
1. 起源在哪里?
2. 此版本正確嗎?
Published Report 公開的消息
公開的消息包括學(xué)術(shù)文章,專業(yè)報(bào)刊和電視新聞評論等,其中學(xué)術(shù)文章更有參考意義,因?yàn)橛形墨I(xiàn)出處。如果文章是非學(xué)術(shù)類,那就需要質(zhì)疑文章的觀點(diǎn)是否有出處、有證據(jù)支撐?
Eyewitness Testimony 親眼所見
即使親眼所見也可能與真相有偏差,眼見不一定為實(shí)。與環(huán)境和個人狀態(tài)有關(guān)。要考慮到記憶的欺騙性、心理活動造成認(rèn)知的偏差。
Celebrity Testimony 名人的觀點(diǎn)
評估名人說話是否可信要確認(rèn)名人是否有償代言,有時候名人不會對自己的言論負(fù)責(zé)。
Expert Opinion 專家觀點(diǎn)
專家觀點(diǎn)不一定可信,在聽取專家意見之前,我們需要確認(rèn)專家是否在此領(lǐng)域有專長,是否使用最新研究成果,是否受雇發(fā)言,是否有其他權(quán)威專家同意他的觀點(diǎn)。
Experiment 實(shí)驗(yàn)
實(shí)驗(yàn)有兩種:
1. laboratory 實(shí)驗(yàn)室實(shí)驗(yàn)
有一些實(shí)驗(yàn)可以人工模擬,所以我們的檢驗(yàn)方法就是判斷實(shí)驗(yàn)是否可重復(fù),實(shí)驗(yàn)人員可否更換。
2. filed 野外現(xiàn)場試驗(yàn)
缺陷:研究者會影響被實(shí)驗(yàn)的對象,造成結(jié)果偏離,檢驗(yàn)方法: 是否有另一個獨(dú)立研究者對實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果進(jìn)行確認(rèn)。
Statistics 統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)
統(tǒng)計(jì)也并非可靠,要確定:
1 數(shù)據(jù)的來源?
2 數(shù)據(jù)統(tǒng)計(jì)的方法?
Survey 問卷
樣本的代表性、問題描述是否清楚、問題是否有某種傾向性、調(diào)查任務(wù)是否有普遍性、是否有其他調(diào)查可以輔助證明本實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果?
Formal Observation 正式觀察
Research Review 研究評價
Evaluating Evidence
How ?can ?you ?tell ?when ?bias ?is ?hindering ?your ?evaluation ?of ?evidence? Look for one or more of these signs:
? You approach your evaluation wanting one side to be proved right.
? You begin your investigation assuming that familiar views will prove correct.
? You look for evidence that supports the side of the issue you favor and ignore evidence that opposes it.
? You rate sources by how favorable they are to your thinking rather than by their reliability and the quality of their research.
? You are nitpickingly critical of evidence for views you oppose and uncritical of evidence for views you favor.
? When you encounter evidence that opposes your bias, you begin arguing against it, often before you have completed examining it.
What Constitutes Sufficient Evidence?
1. Evidence is sufficient when it permits a judgment to be made with certainty.
2. If certainty is unattainable, evidence is sufficient if one view of the issue has been shown to have the force of probability.
3. In all other cases, the evidence must be considered insufficient.
Thought
成長的一個表現(xiàn)就是質(zhì)疑,越是成熟的人,越是不容易相信他人,因?yàn)樗麄冇懈咝幚碚摀?jù)的能力,可以通過自己的判斷明辨是非。只是遺憾的是很多人都不成熟,讓騙子擁有可乘之機(jī)。輕信是一種善良,也是一種無知。
在上寫作課的時候我常說論據(jù)要真實(shí)可信,越是正式的文本,對論據(jù)真實(shí)性要求越高,畢竟論據(jù)越是真實(shí),論證就越是可信。凡事都有兩面性,若想提出“一邊倒”的言論,就離不開對論據(jù)的選擇和對寫作的把控。了解了論據(jù)的作用和寫作方法后,不僅能寫出令人信服的議論文,還能讓我們更有效地閱讀,透過現(xiàn)象看本質(zhì)。